Inside the manual

Chapter 01 · Natural Plant Fibres

Classification

Plant fibres are generally divided by botanical source and by the part of the plant from which the fibre is obtained. That distinction is important because it affects length, fineness, strength, processability, and the kind of impurities or variation that can appear in production.

Cotton: quality, identity and control

Cotton fibre quality

Cotton quality is multidimensional. A commercial origin, variety, or premium name cannot replace measured bale data and a spinning trial. The properties below interact: a long average length does not compensate automatically for poor uniformity, weak fibre, immaturity, contamination, or excessive short-fibre content.

Staple-length classes

Length terminology is not universal: the measurement method, crop/classing system, and whether the value is UHML, mean length, or hand staple must be stated. As a practical reference, the Cotton Incorporated U.S. fibre-property chart rates UHML as follows:

These bands are a comparative guide, not a universal purchasing specification. Specify the actual measured distribution, short-fibre method, spinning system, yarn count, end use, and lot-mixing rules.

Pima cotton

Pima is the commercial name used in the United States for extra-long-staple cotton of Gossypium barbadense. USDA/Cotton Incorporated classification material describes American Pima fibres at approximately 1¼ to 1 9/16 inches, or about 31.8 to 39.7 mm. The longer, fine and strong fibres can support fine, smooth, strong yarns with low hairiness, good lustre, soft handle, and clear colour when the fibre is mature and correctly processed.

“Pima” must not be treated as an automatic guarantee of every quality parameter. Confirm species/type, origin claim, UHML, uniformity, strength, micronaire or independent fineness/maturity data, colour, contamination, bale identity, and chain of custody. A blend containing only a proportion of Pima must not be described as though the whole cotton content were Pima.

SUPIMA®

SUPIMA® is not a separate generic fibre. It is a registered trademark used for U.S.-grown American Pima extra-long-staple cotton supplied through the programme’s licensed and traceable chain. The trademark therefore combines a defined raw-material origin with brand, licensing, transaction, and authentication requirements.

Do not use “Supima” as a synonym for all Pima or all extra-long-staple cotton. Before making a SUPIMA® claim, verify the current licence status of the relevant supply-chain parties, eligible fibre inventory, transaction-level traceability, product composition, trademark approval, and current labelling or hangtag rules. Fibre quality still has to be confirmed from bale and production data; trademark eligibility does not replace manufacturing control.

Sample card: Cotton

Chapter 07 · Yarns

Bale selection, opening, and mixing

Raw fibre arrives in compressed bales or packages with differences in origin, grade, colour, moisture, length, fineness, maturity, strength, contamination, finish, and price. A laydown combines bales so that short-term variation is averaged across a production lot. Bale management is therefore both a quality and traceability operation.

The bale opener removes small tufts progressively rather than tearing large compact masses. Subsequent mixers create residence time and repeated redistribution. The target is a homogeneous blend without unnecessary fibre rupture or nep formation.

Control:

• bale identity, grade, moisture, and certification status;
• laydown plan and permitted blend tolerances;
• tuft size and opening intensity;
• metal, plastic, polypropylene, coloured fibre, and foreign-matter detection;
• extraction and fire protection;
• waste classification and reconciliation;
• changeover cleaning between colours, fibre types, and certified lots.

Blending can combine equivalent lots, different fibre properties, different colours for mélange yarn, or different fibre types. A blend percentage stated on the final product must be protected through weigh-pan accuracy, stock records, waste accounting, and composition testing.

Chapter 08 · Fabric Constructions

Weave notation and messa in carta

A weave draft or point-paper plan uses a square grid. Columns normally represent warp ends and rows represent weft picks. A filled square commonly indicates that the warp is raised over the weft, although conventions must be stated.

The complete weaving plan may contain:

• weave or interlacing plan;
• drawing-in draft through heddle shafts;
• lifting or peg plan;
• tie-up between shafts and treadles or dobby controls;
• denting plan through the reed;
• colour-and-weave plan;
• selvedge construction.

Figure 8.1 places the three essential notations side by side. Reading the filled squares by columns and rows reveals the frequency of interlacing and the direction of the repeat.

Plain weave alternates warp-up and warp-down at every crossing. A 2/2 twill advances the interlacing point to create a diagonal. Satin distributes binding points to avoid adjacent interlacings and create long floats.

Chapter 09 · Dyeing Processes

Where colour enters the textile chain

Colour can be introduced at polymer solution or melt, loose fibre, top or stock, yarn, fabric, garment, print, or surface-coating stage. Earlier coloration normally provides stronger penetration and large-lot consistency but reduces commercial flexibility. Later coloration allows rapid response and product effects but introduces more dimensional, seam, trim, and shade risks.

Package yarn dyeing

Package yarn dyeing

Yarn is wound onto perforated cones, springs, or tubes and loaded on spindles inside a pressurised vessel. Liquor alternates from inside-to-outside and outside-to-inside. Package density, winding tension, tube perforation, spindle sealing, flow rate, differential pressure, and loading geometry determine penetration.

Figure 9.1 exposes the package carrier and circulation circuit. The pump and heat exchanger condition the bath before it is directed through the perforated spindles and yarn layers; reversing the flow reduces the difference between the inner and outer package zones.

Hard packages may resist flow; soft packages may deform or allow channeling. Inspect inner, middle, and outer package layers. After dyeing, controlled hydroextraction, drying, rewinding, waxing, or clearing may be required.

Chapter 11 · Textile Defects

Fibre defects

Contamination, immature fibre, coarse hair, excessive short fibre, neps, vegetable matter, colour variation, and foreign matter can survive multiple processes. Raw-material sampling should reflect bales, lots, positions, and time. Once fibres are blended, origin becomes harder to isolate.

Classification by severity

Severity is defined by customer requirements and end use.

Defect classification and sampling plan are separate decisions. AQL is not a licence to ship known defects and does not replace process control. Critical defects may be assigned a zero-acceptance rule even when other classes use statistical sampling.

Root-cause workflow

1. Contain affected material and identify the last known good output. 2. Confirm the defect against an approved standard. 3. Map frequency, location, direction, and lot boundaries. 4. Compare raw material, machine, operator, recipe, environment, and time. 5. Reproduce the failure where possible. 6. Implement corrective action and verify effectiveness on new production. 7. Update the control plan, not only the inspection report.

Chapter 12 · Laboratory Tests

Sampling and conditioning

Sampling should represent production lots, colours, sizes, positions, and risk. Avoid damaged roll ends unless the purpose is defect investigation. Textiles are conditioned in a specified standard atmosphere before tests affected by moisture. Record departures and do not compare conditioned and unconditioned results as if equivalent.

Pilling

Pilling methods abrade or tumble specimens under controlled conditions and assess surface change against standards. Method families are not interchangeable. State apparatus, cycle, loading, assessment scale, and whether fuzzing, pilling, and matting were rated separately.

Figure 12.1 shows a multi-station Martindale instrument. Circular specimens move against the specified abradant under controlled load and a defined Lissajous motion; holders, loading pieces, abradant, cycle count, conditioning, and assessment interval must match the selected method.

Strength, seam and colour fastness

Tensile, tear and bursting strength

Strip or grab tensile tests measure resistance to an increasing uniaxial force. Tear tests measure propagation of an existing cut or rupture. Bursting tests apply multidirectional stress and are often appropriate for knits. Results cannot be substituted across methods because the stress state and specimen geometry differ.

Figure 12.2 compares the loading principles: opposed grips apply uniaxial tension to a strip, a prepared cut directs tear propagation, and a diaphragm or pneumatic head loads a clamped specimen multidirectionally for bursting. The illustration explains the stress state, not an interchangeable test result.

Colour fastness

Fastness evaluates resistance to specified agencies such as washing, rubbing, perspiration, water, light, chlorinated water, seawater, dry cleaning, heat, or storage. Report colour change and staining separately using the specified scales or instrumental assessment. Dark shades, prints, contrast panels, and fluorescent colours may require additional controls.

Chapter 13 · Certifications and Claims

GOTS and OCS

GOTS covers certified organic fibres together with processing, chemical, environmental, social, and chain-of-custody requirements. GOTS 8.0 was released in March 2026; official transition dates and current labelling conditions must be checked before approval. A finished-product GOTS claim requires the relevant certified chain and approved labelling, not merely organic fibre from a certified upstream supplier.

The Organic Content Standard verifies the presence and chain of custody of certified organic material. It does not provide the same processing and chemical criteria as GOTS. Select the scheme according to the claim being made.

Claim verification

Red flags

• Certificate supplied only as a cropped image.
• Company name, address, or licence number does not match the invoice.
• Certificate valid dates do not cover production or transaction.
• Product or process is outside the certified scope.
• Transaction quantity exceeds plausible certified input.
• A logo appears without certification-body or licence information required by the scheme.
• The claim changes from “sourced” to “contains” without physical-content evidence.
• The finished product is described as certified when only raw material is covered.

Request a copy in your language

Tell us which edition you need.

Leave your email and preferred language. We will contact you when that edition is available.